Which of the following marked the end of the medieval period in Europe?

The end of the medieval period in Europe is often viewed as a complex and multi-faceted transition marked by several significant events and developments. The correct answer encompasses all of the listed choices, as each played a crucial role in the transformation of European society.

The invention of the printing press, for instance, revolutionized the way information was disseminated. It facilitated the spread of ideas, literature, and knowledge, contributing to the decline of the Church's power over information and education, thus fostering a more literate society and contributing to the questioning of traditional authority, which was a hallmark of the Renaissance.

The fall of Constantinople in 1453 also had a profound impact, as it led to the end of the Byzantine Empire and shifted trade routes, prompting European powers to seek new territories and engage in exploration. This event symbolized a significant moment in the decline of feudalism and an increase in central political power, leading to the emergence of nation-states.

The beginning of the Renaissance marked a cultural rebirth, emphasizing humanism, art, science, and a revival of classical learning that starkly contrasted with the predominant medieval worldview. This movement inspired a significant shift in philosophy, art, and science, propelling Europe into the modern age.

Each